A magazine is a periodical publication, print or digital, generally produced on a regular schedule, that contains any of a variety of subject-oriented textual and visual content forms. Magazines are generally financed by advertising, purchase price, prepaid subscriptions, or by a combination of the three. They are categorised by their frequency of publication (i.e., as weeklies, monthlies, quarterlies, etc.), their target audiences (e.g., women’s and trade magazines), their subjects of focus (e.g., popular science and religious), and their tones or approach (e.g., works of satire or humor). Appearance on the cover of print magazines has historically been understood to convey a place of honor or distinction to an individual or event.[not verified in body]
Term origin and definition
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Origin
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The etymology of the word “magazine” suggests derivation from the Arabic makhāzin (مخازن), the broken plural of makhzan (مخزن) meaning “depot, storehouse” (originally military storehouse); that comes to English via Middle French magasin and Italian magazzino.[1] In its original sense, the word “magazine” referred to a storage space or device.[1]
Definitions
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In the case of written publication, it refers to a collection of written articles; hence, magazine publications share the moniker with storage units for military equipment such as gunpowder, artillery and firearm magazines, and in French and Russian (adopted from the French, as магазин), retailers such as department stores.[2]
A distinction can be made between magazines and journals.[clarification needed][according to whom?] In the technical sense, a journal has continuous pagination throughout a volume;[according to whom?] thus, Bloomberg Businessweek, which starts each issue anew with page one, is a magazine, but the Journal of Business Communication, which continues the same sequence of pagination throughout the coterminous year, is a journal.[citation needed]
Another distinction regard peer-review,[according to whom?] although some professional or trade publications are also peer-reviewed, for example the Journal of Accountancy.[citation needed] Non-peer-reviewed academic or professional publications are generally professional magazines.[citation needed] That a publication calls itself a journal does not make it a journal in the technical sense; The Wall Street Journal is actually a newspaper.[citation needed]
Distribution
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Print magazines can be distributed through the mail, through sales by newsstands, bookstores, or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations.[citation needed] Electronic distribution methods can include social media, email, news aggregators, and visibility of a publication’s website and search engine results.[citation needed] The traditional subscription business models for distribution fall into three main categories.[citation needed]
Paid circulation
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In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a per-issue basis or by subscription, where an annual fee or monthly price is paid and issues are sent by post to readers. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics.[3][4]
Non-paid circulation
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This means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, on airlines, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed, and not who reads them.[citation needed]
Controlled circulation
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This is the model used by many trade magazines (industry-based periodicals) distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. Because of costs (e.g., printing and postage) associated with the medium of print, publishers may not distribute free copies to everyone who requests one (unqualified leads); instead, they operate under controlled circulation, deciding who may receive free subscriptions based on each person’s qualification as a member of the trade (and likelihood of buying, for example, likelihood of having corporate purchasing authority, as determined by job title). This allows a high level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertiser’s target audience,[5] and it avoids wasted printing and distribution expenses. This latter model was widely used before the rise of the World Wide Web and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including Computer Weekly and Computing, and in finance, Waters Magazine. For the global media industry, an example would be VideoAge International.[citation needed]
History
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The earliest example of magazines was Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen, a literary and philosophy magazine, which was launched in 1663 in Germany.[6] The Gentleman’s Magazine, first published in 1741 in London was the first general-interest magazine.[7] Edward Cave, who edited The Gentleman’s Magazine under the pen name “Sylvanus Urban”, was the first to use the term “magazine”, on the analogy of a military storehouse,[8] the quote being: “a monthly collection, to treasure up as in a magazine”.[9] Founded by Herbert Ingram in 1842, The Illustrated London News was the first illustrated weekly news magazine.[7]
Britain
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The oldest consumer magazine still in print is The Scots Magazine,[10] which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totalling over 90 years weaken that claim. Lloyd’s List was founded in Edward Lloyd’s England coffee shop in 1734; although its online platform is still updated daily, it has not been published as a printed magazine since 2013, when it ended print publication after 274 years.[11]
France
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Main articles: History of French journalism and History of journalism
Under the Ancien Régime, the most prominent magazines were Mercure de France, Journal des sçavans, founded in 1665 for scientists, and Gazette de France, founded in 1631. Jean Loret was one of France’s first journalists. He disseminated the weekly news of music, dance and Parisian society from 1650 until 1665 in verse, in what he called a gazette burlesque, assembled in three volumes of La Muse historique (1650, 1660, 1665). The French press lagged a generation behind the British, for they catered to the needs of the aristocracy, while the newer British counterparts were oriented toward the middle and working classes.[12][non-primary source needed]
Periodicals were censored by the central government in Paris. They were not totally quiescent politically—often they criticized Church abuses and bureaucratic ineptitude. They supported the monarchy and they played at most a small role in stimulating the revolution.[13][page needed] During the Revolution, new periodicals played central roles as propaganda organs for various factions. Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) was the most prominent editor. His L’Ami du peuple advocated vigorously for the rights of the lower classes against the enemies of the people Marat hated; it closed when he was assassinated. After 1800 Napoleon reimposed strict censorship.[14][page needed]
Magazines flourished after Napoleon left in 1815. Most were based in Paris and most emphasized literature, poetry and stories. They served religious, cultural and political communities. In times of political crisis they expressed and helped shape the views of their readership and thereby were major elements in the changing political culture.[15][page needed] For example, there were eight Catholic periodicals in 1830 in Paris. None were officially owned or sponsored by the Church and they reflected a range of opinion among educated Catholics about current issues, such as the 1830 July Revolution that overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. Several were strong supporters of the Bourbon kings, but all eight ultimately urged support for the new government, putting their appeals in terms of preserving civil order. They often discussed the relationship between church and state. Generally, they urged priests to focus on spiritual matters and not engage in politics. Historian M. Patricia Dougherty says this process created a distance between the Church and the new monarch and enabled Catholics to develop a new understanding of church-state relationships and the source of political authority.[16][non-primary source needed]
Turkey
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General
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The Moniteur Ottoman was a gazette written in French and first published in 1831 on the order of Mahmud II. It was the first official gazette of the Ottoman Empire, edited by Alexandre Blacque at the expense of the Sublime Porte. Its name perhaps referred to the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel. It was issued weekly. Takvim-i vekayi was published a few months later, intended as a translation of the Moniteur into Ottoman Turkish. After having been edited by former Consul for Denmark “M. Franceschi“, and later on by “Hassuna de Ghiez“, it was lastly edited by Lucien Rouet. However, facing the hostility of embassies, it was closed in the 1840s.[17]
Satire
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Satirical magazines of Turkey have a long tradition. One of the earliest satirical magazines was Diyojen which was launched in 1869. There are around 20 satirical magazines; the leading ones are Penguen (70,000 weekly circulation), LeMan (50,000) and Uykusuz. Historical examples include Oğuz Aral‘s magazine Gırgır (which reached a circulation of 500,000 in the 1970s) and Marko Paşa (launched in 1946). Others include L-Manyak and Lombak.
United States
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Further information: History of American journalism and Mass media and American politics
Colonial America
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Publishing was a very expensive industry in colonial times. Paper and printer’s ink were taxed imported goods and their quality was inconsistent. Interstate tariffs and a poor road system hindered distribution, even on a regional scale. Many magazines were launched, most failing within a few editions, but publishers kept trying. Benjamin Franklin is said to have envisioned one of the first magazines of the American colonies in 1741, the General Magazine and Historical Chronicle. The Pennsylvania Magazine, edited by Thomas Paine, ran only for a short time but was a very influential publication during the Revolutionary War. The final issue containing the text of the Declaration of Independence was published in 1776.[18][better source needed]
Late 19th century
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In the mid-19th century, monthly magazines gained popularity. They were general interest to begin, containing some news, vignettes, poems, history, political events, and social discussion.[19][page needed] Unlike newspapers, they were more of a monthly record of current events along with entertaining stories, poems, and pictures. The first periodicals to branch out from news were Harper’s and The Atlantic, which focused on fostering the arts.[20][page needed] Both Harper’s and The Atlantic persist to this day, with Harper’s being a cultural magazine and The Atlantic focusing mainly on world events. Early publications of Harper’s even held famous works such as early publications of Moby Dick or famous events such as the laying of the world’s first transatlantic telegraph cable; however, the majority of early content was trickle down from British events.[21]
The development of the magazines stimulated an increase in literary criticism and political debate, moving towards more opinionated pieces from the objective newspapers.[20][page needed] The increased time between prints and the greater amount of space to write provided a forum for public arguments by scholars and critical observers.[22][page needed]
The early periodical predecessors to magazines started to evolve to modern definition in the late 1800s.[22][page needed] Works slowly became more specialized and the general discussion or cultural periodicals were forced to adapt to a consumer market which yearned for more localization of issues and events.[20][page needed]
Progressive era: 1890s–1920s
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Further information: Muckrakers and Mass media and American politics
Mass-circulation magazines became much more common after 1900, some with circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. Some passed the million-mark in the 1920s. It was an age of mass media. Because of the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents.[23] One cause was the heavy coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially by Muckrakers. They were journalists who wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. They relied on their own investigative journalism reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. Muckraking magazines–notably McClure’s–took on corporate monopolies and crooked political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues such as child labor.[24][page needed]
The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel, and Brand Whitlock. Others, including Lincoln Steffens, exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell went after John D. Rockefeller‘s Standard Oil Company. Samuel Hopkins Adams in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, Upton Sinclair‘s 1906 novel The Jungle gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained that they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.[25][page needed][26]
1930s–1990s
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21st century
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According to the Research Department of Statista, closures of magazines outnumbered launches in North America during 2009. Although both figures declined during 2010–2015, launches outnumbered closures in each of those years, sometimes by a 3:1 ratio.[27] Focusing more narrowly, MediaFinder.com found that 93 new magazines were launched during the first six months of 2014, while only 30 closed in that time frame. The category which produced the most new publications was “Regional interest”, of which six new magazines were launched, including 12th & Broad and Craft Beer & Brewing.[28][full citation needed] However, two magazines had to change their print schedules. Johnson Publishing‘s Jet stopped printing regular issues, making the transition to digital format, though still printing an annual print edition.[29] Ladies’ Home Journal stopped their monthly schedule and home delivery for subscribers to become a quarterly newsstand-only special interest publication.[30]
According to statistics from the end of 2013, subscription levels for 22 of the top 25 magazines declined from 2012 to 2013, with just Time, Glamour and ESPN The Magazine gaining numbers.[31] However, by 2024, some titles, notably outdoors magazines, appeared to be growing in popularity.[32]
Women’s magazines
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The “seven sisters” of American women’s magazines are Ladies’ Home Journal, Good Housekeeping, McCall’s, Woman’s Day, Redbook, Family Circle, and Better Homes and Gardens.[33] Some magazines, among them Godey’s Lady’s Book and Harper’s Bazaar, were intended exclusively for a female audience, emphasizing the traditional gender roles of the 19th century.[citation needed] Harper’s Bazaar was the first to focus exclusively on couture fashion, fashion accessories and textiles.[34] The inclusion of didactic content about housekeeping may have increased the appeal of the magazine for a broader audience of women and men concerned about the frivolity of a fashion magazine.[18][verification needed]
Categories
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Based on periodicity
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Magazines are often categorised by their frequencies of publication (i.e., as weeklies, monthlies, quarterlies, etc.).[citation needed]
Based on target audience and subject
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Women’s fashion
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The first women’s magazine targeted toward wives and mothers was published in 1852.[35] In the 1920s, new magazines appealed to young German women with a sensuous image and advertisements for the appropriate clothes and accessories they would want to purchase. The glossy pages of Die Dame and Das Blatt der Hausfrau displayed the “Neue Frauen”, “New Girl” – what Americans called the flapper. This ideal young woman was chic, financially independent, and an eager consumer of the latest fashions. Magazines kept her up to date on fashion, arts, sports, and modern technology such as automobiles and telephones.[36]
Parenting
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Other women’s magazines have influenced views of motherhood and child-rearing through the use of advice columns, advertisements, and articles related to parenting.[37] Mass-marketed women’s magazines have shaped and transformed cultural values related to parenting practices. As such, magazines targeting women and parenthood have exerted power and influence over ideas about motherhood and child-rearing.[37]
Religion
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Religious groups have used magazines for spreading and communicating religious doctrine for over 100 years.[citation needed] For instance, The Watchtower magazine of the Jehovah’s Witnesses was founded by Charles Taze Russell under the title Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence in July 1879.[38][better source needed]
Celebrity gossip, human interest
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Magazines publishing stories and photos of high-profile individuals and celebrities have long been a popular format in the United States.[39] In 2019, People Magazine ranked second behind ESPN Magazine in total reach with a reported reach of 98.51 million.[40]
Professional
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Professional magazines, also called trade magazines, or business-to-business magazines are targeted to readers employed in particular industries. These magazines typically cover industry trends and news of interest to professionals in the industry. Subscriptions often come with membership in a professional association. Professional magazines may derive revenue from advertisement placements or advertorials by companies selling products and services to a specific professional audience. Examples include Advertising Age, Automotive News, Broadcast, The Bookseller, and The Stage.[41][42][43][44][45]
Based on tone or approach
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Magazines can be categorised by their tone or approach, e.g., as with periodical works of satire or humor.[citation needed]
Cover
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Further information: cover art
 | hideThis section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)This section does not cite any sources. (January 2025)This section needs expansion with: source-derived content discussing the meaning, and journalistic purpose and impact of magazine cover art and photography. You can help by adding to it. (January 2025) |
Being on the cover of a magazine is sometimes considered an honor or distinction;[citation needed] examples are one-time common statements to the effect that an individual had “appeared on the cover of Time” or of the Rolling Stone, etc.[citation needed]
The English Wikipedia presents a number of List-type articles that survey subjects and individuals appearing in the covers of specific magazines; see for example:
